Literature Review Assignment
가상의 프로젝트 팀을 운영하고 있을때는 어떻게 다를까요 ?
여기에서 "가상의 프로젝트팀" 이라 하는 것은 일반적인 기업에서 하는것과 마찬가지로 함께 모여서 프로젝트를 진행하는 것과 정반대의 개념입니다. 이전에 포스팅 하였던 푸조 케이스도 그런 가상프로젝트중 하나였는데요. 그와 같이 프로젝트멤버들이 서울, 프랑스, 미국 처럼 전세계로 흩어져 있다면? 기본적인 의사소통 방법부터 달라지게 될 겁니다.
이번 과제는 그러한 상황에서의 해결법을 모색하는 내용을 요구하고 있습니다.
Literature Assignment - Jonathan Dze Chi Mooyoung Son 13dec.pdf과제내용 : Virtual Porject team 에 대하여 조사하여 paper를 작성하시오.
By
Jonathan Dze Chi
Mooyoung Son
11 Pages
4979 Words
722A25-09-2
Project Management in International Settings
Lakemond, Nicolette
Associate Professor
14, December, 2009
Literature Assignment
Literatures Chosen:
1. How Teamwork Matters More as Team Member Dispersion Increases
2. Global R&D Projects – How to manage cultural diversity
3. The Challenges of Managing cross cultural virtual teams
4. Making Virtual Teams More Effective: Improving relational links
5.
Factors That Influence Technical Communication in Distributed Product
Development: An Empirical Study in the Telecommunications Industry
Literature Flows:
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Important Issues in Virtual Teamwork |
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Team play |
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Culture |
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Communication |
1) the basic ideas of the articles and sumary
“How Teamwork Matters More as Team Member Dispersion Increases” - In this article author analyzed on teamwork quality and team performance as team members dispersion increases. Teamwork quality refers to indicators such as sharing of information, close coordination of task activities, use of team members´ support, norms of high effort, team cohession and mutual support. The effectiveness of these indicators contribute to team performance. Product development teams in innovative project tasks are used to determine the effect of teamwork quality and performace because these type of projects require inputs of specialised knowledge which can only be found in different locations. However, previous studies shows that teamwork quality decreases with decreasing team member proximity (HoeglMartin, 2004) because core aspect of teamwork quality such as communication, coordination, mutual respect, and cohession are difficult to achieve when team members are dispersed.They are easy to achieve when team memebers are closer ton each other over the project duration, there is increase team work quality and performance. Innovative products can be a new product development or improvement on an existing product. Using regression analysis in a German software development laboratories, it was shown that decreasing team member proximity increases the relationship between teamwork quality and team performance. This study was concentrated in a particular country so the influence of cultural diversity, time zone difference, long distance travel on teamwork quality and team performance cannot be known. This pushes us to choose the article “Global R&D Projects – How To Manage cultural diversity”
“Global R&D Projects – How To Manage cultural diversity” - This article shows how cultural diversity or team dynamism is managed in global R&D projects. In the past, R&D projects involving experts, different nationalities, religion or ethnic background, worldviews, values, styles of communication and aspiration (Cramton, C.K. & Hinds, 2004) was coordinated successfully because of centralised adminitrative control and cultural integration was encouraged while cultural diversity was discouraged. Today, the struggling to meet the demand of customers companies are locating their R&D different locations according to the diiferent needs of customers. R&D decentralisation is now influenced by cultural diversity. Ethnocentricism has been identified as a threat to the success of global R&D projects. Local teams carrying out portion of the overall project create internal images that lead to negative team dynamism and increase inefficiency. Ethnocentrism is proposed to be ignored and be replaced with ethnorelativism. Ethnocentism is a social pattern that takes the form of a strong emotional attachment to one´s own group and suspision and hostile attitude is shown to other groups while ethnorelativism is a positively impacting subgroup that allows and utilise diversity. This article shows well handled ethnocentism can be an effective way to manage cultural diversity in global projects. There are several ways to deal with cultural diversity in global project than eliminatinge ethnocentism. Where there is a conflict, it can be a solution and utility instead of avioding or removing. Culture is very important in the context of global project management, organisation, the project phases and the subgroups involved. Bearing to the fact that the article failed to demonstrate how cultural diversity was managed in a project dominated by Finnish, made us to investigate the callenges of cross cultural diversity in vitual teams.
“The Challenges of Managing cross cultural virtual teams” - Project teamwork has changed drastically by globalisation. Organisations now carryout projects that involve different geograpghical different time-zones. Project teams find it difficult working in virtual teams because virtual team work is more complex than face to face. Matrix organisations involves different geographical regions, different time zones, and nationalities. It is difficult to manage these factors due to diversity which may lead to poor perfomance (Heimer and Vince, Iles, P. and Kaur Hayers, P, 1997) of team work especailly as quality is the priority in most projects such as new product development. Project managers are always in a delima managing team work as site specific culture and lack of familiarity are always sources of conflicts.This are challenges faced by project leaders, project managers,project team representatives and how they are overcome from interviews conducted in ABC, a multinational company with headquarters in Switzerland. They had leadership challenges, virtual aspect of communication, trust development, managing task, people, languages, cultural issues and managing the matrix. These challenges are faced by different project leaders becase in this study, they form the core team. They all control virtual teams. Project which are of international magnitude; leadership, communication and trust are human factors which should be given greater attention because they affect all aspect of the project management task. Being a project manager entails understanding the above factors for effective project management.
“Making Virtual Teams More Effective: Improving relational links” - There is a growing importance of virtual teams as firms globalise in search of competitive advantage and to maximize strength, address threats and minimize weaknesses. This is because it has been realised that team meetings, meeting face to face always do not respect time and place maybe because of reasons beyond their control and meetings have been postponed for several times or indefinitely. Virtual teams seems to be an alternative with the advent of technology. New environmental characteristics makes communication and collaboration more critical to a team´s success (Duarte, D.L. and Snyder, N.T, 1999) A lot of computer based systems have been created to help virtual teams communication. Many theories shows that when teams memebers meet face to face, they can observe fellow members directly, see who attends meetings or participate in conversations about the project and the project group progress which have a positive impact on self perception of performance, something which is lacking in virtual teams. Relational links has been shown to be a significant contribution to the ability to exchange information which will and to positively affects the groups performance.In a computer supported group it has shown that given adequate time, teams will exchange enough social information to develop strong relational links. What has not been determined, is how to enhancethe creation of relational links so as to also attain the performance quicker. These research acknowedged that time is needed fot virtual teams to develop relational links to attain the cohessiveness perception of process and satisfaction, but if teams receive relational development training, they will develop higher level of cohesiveness,perception of process, and satisfaction and the outcome will be faster than those without training.
“Factors That Influence Technical Communication in Distributed Product Development: An Empirical Study in the Telecommunications Industry” - As businesses strive to meet the need of their customers,by providing high quality product, in different markets, there is also the need to restructure their organisation. This is done by locating part of the ompany away from headquarters. Some employees or teams are moved to these areas which has generated the need of an effective communication network. According to Sosa (Manuel E. Sosa, Steven D. Eppinger, 2002), the requirement of geographically distributed teams is increasing and the use of electronic communication devices has changed the way of project team communication. Actually companies are using computer mediated communication systems (CMCS) in these days to communicate with the offices in other countries. There are many kinds of computer mediated communication systems (CMCS); face to face, telephone, e-mail and blog or instance messenger. In this article, the author provides a comparison between these three general communication media (face-to-face, telephone, and e-mail) and its efficiency on teamwork as a communication method. The author suggested that the method to use should be based on the distance of team member dispersed. For example communicating between project team members who are co-located, face-to-face method should use because it provides high probability. In long distances, face-to-face method is not appropriate anymore instead telephone method is the best because it makes the distance shorter. When members’ distance is log so that time-zone is different, e-mail method will be better than telephone or face to face method because office hour also will be different.
2) background of the articles, Importance and core arguements
“How Teamwork Matters More as Team Member Dispersion Increases” - The article is important because it shows projects where group or team members are not co- located, and the project manager cannot coordinate, communicate with project team members effectively but they are able to achieve the end result. More so as businesses focuses on customer satisfaction and low production cost, they tend to decentralise their R&D operations by locating them closer to important markets and also create center of excellent by using the resources of regionally technology (Tallman, Stephen, Jenkins, Mark, Henry, Nick and Pinch, Steven, 2004) Team member proximity or dispersion is found in most projects even projects initiated and carryout at the same locations will require team member despersion because collaboration will be required from partner firms, suppliers, and customers,that provide and important knowledge for the project. In such projects, team members from the focal organisation may spend time at the site of a collaborating firm or the project team may include members from these organisation who mainly collaborate with the other team members over a distance. The importance of team dispersion in projects is because it captures the knowledge potentials from verious locations whether within an organisation R&D centers or from collaborating organisations´sites. It is also important to note that leadership effectiveness decreases as team member proximity decreases. Team leaders have less direct and immediate access to all team members. Team leaders in co-located teams can manage low quality team work through direct monitoring and coordination but in decreasing team member proximity it becomes more difficult to manage more critical things such as information search and structuring, problem solving, team member´s commitment and coaching and facilitating work. It is also important to not that as team member proximity decreases, team work quality has a strong impact on the team´s ability to effectively and efficiently complete its project. This is because coordination within the team, the balance of team member contribution and communication among team members is managed by team members with less immediate assistance from the team leader and for these can be access to be effective onlyif the project is completed.
"Global R&D Projects – How To Manage cultural diversity” - The article identifies the different types of groups and subgroups that are found in global R&D projects and their positve and negative effects to project. Global R&D projects may be composed of several internally homogeneous teams and heterogegeous teams with alot of differences among them that hinders the smooth running of the project but what is important to understand is that human preferences tend to facilitate cultural coherence within project groups or other groups according to differencies in language and nationalities and profession. People turn to associate themselves in most cultures in such groups or subgroups. The project It shows the strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of cultural diversity. In these days where R&D projects are decentralised it has become very difficult to cope with ethnocentrism and most global projects management seems to avoid it and it is being replaced with ethnorelativism. There are homogeneous and hectorogeneous groups. Ethnicentrism are identified as ingroups that is homogeneous groups while out groups are ethnorelativism groups that is heterogeneous groups. It is argued that ethnocentrism is a source of creating conflicts in projects causing groups to broke up into sub groups which might derail the intended outcome of the wole project, so ethnorelativism is prefered but enthnorelativism too has its own disadvantages. It become useless immediately knowledge sharing between ingroups and outgroups is no longer needed. More so it is argued that the negative effect of ethnocentism can easily be stopped in ethnorelativism by termination, buffering, filtering or deactivating. But this also canbe stopped in ethnocentrism by using cross cultural learning or cultural globalisation.
"The Challenges of Managing cross cultural virtual teams” - The article outlined the challenges faced by project leaders of cross cultural geographically distributed or virtually project teams operating in a matrix organisation.The challenges project leaders face when leading cross cultural virtual teams. Based on the three key factors that affects all aspect of management task,that is leadership, comunication, and trust they canbe overcome. The problem faced by project leaders is to control people they do not have authority over them. Trust and respect is the solution because it enables them to interact with each other successfully and provide each other with what is needed to develop the product. Teams spend more time working on a document due to time zone differences and lack of face to face contact. Teams do not feel the office atmospherewhich can lead them to comunicate with each otherface to face or have a conversation maybe by meeting in the cafeteria or hallway. Communication on phone does not compliment the feeling of clleagues relationship and video conferences are sometimecontroversial. Having project leaders and project managers in different geographical locations can be a partial solution but face to face contact was considered tobe the best especially when the teams are being set up for the first time. Developing trust was identified as the key to either leadership challenges or communication. If team members do meet face to face it is easy to develope trust. Trust required a long time to be build, so face to face contact is a facilitator.
"Making Virtual Teams More Effective: Improving relational links” - They have been varying results and approahes on the impact of computer mediated communication system(CMCS) on virtual teams. The “cue-filtered-out” view and the media richness theories (LengelR., 1984) (ShortJ.,, 1976) (CulnanM.J., 1987) suggested that face-to-face are better than CMCS because the promote and enhance managerial effectiveness and Zack (ZackM.H., 1993) supported by indicating that face-to-face meetings are more appropriate for building a shared interpretive context among group members. Other theories or studies have found that computer mediated teams if given enough time, do share relational information and sharing of this information may improve the performance. (WaltherJ.B., 1992) (AdlerP.S., 1995) (BurkeK., 1995). Supportive by social information processing theory, suggested that relational intimacy may take longer to develop computer supportive groups. Walther suggested that CMCS does not differ from face-to-face comunication in terms of the substance but in terms of slower at transfer and the key difference has to do not with the amount of but with the rate of social information exchange (WaltherJ.B., 1992). Based on these differences, a study was necesitated not to compare face-to-face communication to CMCS but to see if training would increase the development of relational links in virtual teams. The article is important because there is increase use of CMCS by most of companies today in projects. Evenif the project is not of intenational magnitute, most project teams are virtual teams due to the high rate of specialization so that the article help to give insight of how to develop intimacy group members especially if they not found face-to-face. Relational link training is beneficial for virtual teams because they will have a higher level of cohessive, satisfaction with thier groups outcome and a better impression of the group´s virtual meeting process.
“Factors That Influence Technical Communication in Distributed Product Development: An Empirical Study in the Telecommunications Industry” - The article gives various communication methods when we launch a project in international setting. According to the article, The European MNCs are working on the farthest along in terms of the internationalization of its new product development. Most of its facilities could be classified as international creators. And the Asian MNC is the least internationalized, with many of its facilities evolving from local adopters to international adopters. The North American MNC is in between, but closer to the European MNC in internationalization of new product development. (Manuel E. Sosa, Steven D. Eppinger, 2002) European companies were traditionally project oriented companies with Philips as an example. On the other hand, Asian companies which traditionally hierarchical organization were changing because their traditional organizational system is affected by contemporary business system. As they are gathering their business partners in all over the world, the requirement of communication method is becoming critical. The communication method we should choose when we are working on project work in international setting will be different by distance of each team members. To choose right communication method is the project manager’s most important job. If project managers used a wrong communication method, project members will not communicate effectively and cost will increase because the method will not deliver message correctly or the opposite member will be sleeping when you try to connect him.
3) Contribution to Project Management / Organizations
"How Teamwork Matters More as Team Member Dispersion Increases” - In this article, we are made to understand that as organisation decentralised their R&D inorder to better save the customer,so as to is the need to dispersed team members and since it is difficult to coordinate and control team members, leaders should ensure that their selection of team members should be from a pool of experts to canbe able to deliver the goals. More so, not only technical skills should be considered but also social skills because it is difficult to manage dispersed teams so with these different skills, teamwork quality and performance canbe achieved more effectively and efficiently. Most projects become unsuccessful because the team members are dispersed so the project manager find it difficult to coordinate as he has to move from one destination to another which become so costly for the sponsor to handle and as a result, the project is poorly executed, dilevered late or abandonned. To over come this, project managers should ensure that when working with dispersed teams, technical and social skills should be a criteria for selection.
"Global R&D Projects – How To Manage cultural diversity” - The article presents a matrix organisation with a high matrix where the project manager is in total control of the project and do not relys on any assistance from top management to carryout his functions and resolve conflicts as they arises. The team members are fully committed to the project and do not have to do other functions as is often the case of hierarchial or weak matrix. The fact that project’s high priority was quality is why it took much time and resources than was formally planned but the end result was a success. In global projects involves R&D, the role of the project manager is to leverage and stimulate diversity. The author suggested an interanational project with cultural diversity but actually it was an house project with some parts located in different countries. They were working under single organisational culture. So it was easy to control the works.
"The Challenges of Managing cross cultural virtual teams” - The matrix organisation used as a case study ties with the weak matrix organisation where the project manager have little authority over the project and the project team. In the ABC organisation, line management has a saying on the project. He can intervent on a decision taken by the project manager when he deemed it not right. Team members have dual functions working on the project and carrying out their routine jobs which create conflict of authority and which might make the employee to concentrate on his personal goals at the expense of the project. To overcome this , the author mentioned trust and collaborative leadership style and the creationof good relationship with line managers to ensure the success of the project. The structuring of the project organisation was similar to that of the project management. In organisations where more than one project is being carried out, there usually a project leader who oversees the various projects and the projects are managed by project managers. Face-to-face contact continue to dominate communication scene even at the international although increased comunication technology reduces cost but has its price that is trust. People working in project more especially at international level investment should be done on them by training them on language and inter cultural communication. Project leaders should not be selected randomly as is often done in most projects but leaders with collaborative leadership style and good communication skills. Project leaders in matrix organisation more especially weak matrix should lead by influnce rather than authority.
"Making Virtual Teams More Effective: Improving relational links” - When forming virtual teams, it is essencial that they have to meet at first time and be trained so that they use of any computer mediate communication system intimacy will be created that would make the team to be very perfomant. Relational link training will help to team to get together and also to meet mitigate the nagative impact of group cohesiveness.
“Factors That Influence Technical Communication in Distributed Product Development: An Empirical Study in the Telecommunications Industry” - This article provides specific case-study and experimental result using telecommunication method between dispersed team members. This result proves that most projects can be managed in international setting through the use of electronic communication methods. Actually the most difficult part when running a project in international setting is the way to communicate with the different groups actors’ involves. The three general dimensions on the project management are Time, Cost and Quality (TonnquistBo, 2008) as confirmed by many scholars but to achieve a good communication network should be device to avoid delays, excess cost and good quality. This is because communication has a lot of hindrances such as line connection, time difference, languages. Project manager should identify the best communication and its benefits and drawbacks towards goal attainment. For example, e-mail method is slow but it can solve time difference problem but can’t solve the language difference problem. According to the result of experiment, project groups can use many kinds of methods to communicate flexibly.
4) Structure comparison of the articles
Similarity and difference between - Authors of the five articles commonly analyzed situations and problems when a project is running on international setting face by virtual team members and suggested a solution. The various articles chosen were based on project groups (face-to-face and virtual teams), teamwork quality, cultural diversity and communication for effective performance. We divided our chosen articles as following;
1. Project team: Team work quality and team performance
à “How Teamwork Matters More as Team Member Dispersion Increases”
This article implied that as team proximity decreases, teamwork quality and performance decreases.
2. Cultural diversity: ethnocentrism, ethnorelativism and relational link training.
à "Global R&D Projects – How to Manage cultural diversity”
à "The Challenges of Managing cross cultural virtual teams”
These
articles analyzed how to manage cultural difference when team members
are from various cultures, that is improving on ethnocentrism than
eliminating it and Leadership style, communication and trust are
important factors to be taken into consideration.
3. Communication: Using relational link training to create intimacy in teams
à "Making Virtual Teams More Effective: Improving relational links”
à "Factors
That Influence Technical Communication in Distributed Product
development: An Empirical Study in the Telecommunications Industry”
These
articles insisted that team members should take training before
launching project and it would be better to use electronic device to
communicate each other.
|
Article |
Key Concept |
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"How Teamwork Matters More as Team Member Dispersion Increases” |
Teamwork affects team performance more strongly as team member dispersion increases. Two main reasons for this are discussed: 1.High-quality teamwork can leverage the increased knowledge potential of dispersed teams; and 2.Team leaders in more dispersed teams have little possibility to compensate low-quality teamwork through hands-on leadership.
|
|
"Global R&D Projects – How to Manage cultural diversity” |
Importance about cross-cultural virtual project teams within in a matrix organization. 1.Leaders in a matrix organization must be able to lead by influence rather than authority 2.The trend towards ever-increasing use of technology can be efficient and clearly saves costs, |
|
"The Challenges of Managing cross cultural virtual teams” |
There are several factors opposing technical communication between members of a product development team. The literature suggests three major types of geographic barriers to the communication process: 1.Physical distance 2.Overlapping working time 3. Cultural / language differences |
|
"Making Virtual Teams More Effective: Improving relational links” |
Team member training before starting long distance project is important |
|
"Factors That Influence Technical Communication in Distributed Product Development: An Empirical Study in the Telecommunications Industry” |
Efficiency of communication method is depends on distance |
5) Interesting parts and Critiques against the articles?
"How Teamwork Matters More as Team Member Dispersion Increases” - The article talks on team member dispersion on geograpghical boundaries but the case study is based in a single country that is Germany although the company is American organisations, making it extremely difficult to see the effect in international setting. So the article has contributed little or nothing to the understanding of project management in international settings. This is confirmed by the author who acknowdged in his limitation that the work was entirely carried out in Germany rather than being dispersed between countries or continents so the effect of cultural diversity, time zone and long travelling distances may not be known. However this article was chosen to seehow project managers work with teams which are not co- located and what happen to such projects. In addition to know whether team member dispersion is common on all projects or on particular projects. In this case, it is said team member dispersion is common only in innovative projects or development projects.
"Global R&D Projects – How to manage cultural diversity” - According to the author the project was first of its kind. It was carried out in 16 countries with more than 500 workers. Data was gathered through primary and secondary sources. Primary source being interviews while secondary sources was newspapers, magazines and annual reports. A high project of such magnitude, one was expecting to see how the different groups involve were formed, how they interact, what kind of problems they encountered and how they resolve their diffrencesbut the whole project is centered around the program project manager and the out come of the project. The purpose of 16 countries and 500 works is not known. The results of the project as shown by the author indicates that the research was carried out after the project was completed, and with lack of finances, they relied on the interview conducted with the program project manger.Finally the article cannot be completely rejected because it has contributed knowledge to project managementand open the way for another research to be carried out to actually bring out what was not found in the article.
"The Challenges of Managing cross cultural virtual teams” - The case study (ABC organisation) used to demonstrate the challeges of managing cross cultural virtual project teams was an examplary of an international companay. The headquarters was in Switzerland but the project carried out in three different geographical boundaries that are America, Japan, and Europe, etc. This actually shows a cross cultural groups if well-studied result can be applicable in many international projects. The article has concerntrated on the project managers, project leaders and project teams representatives and nothing have been said on the stakeholders influence. The study was not done on a particular project in which the objectives, goals and the end result is known so that it can act like a burster to the factors listed as a challenge to cross cultural virtual project .
“Factors That Influence Technical Communication in Distributed Product Development: An Empirical Study in the Telecommunications Industry” - The author provided experimental result using three methods which are face-to-face, telephone and e-mail. However, there are not only face-to-face, telephone and e-mail within modern communication methods. Actually most modern companies are choosing computer mediated communication systems (CMCS) instead of telephone and fax method which are considered as analog an old-fashioned. Moreover, many of modern companies consider having meeting face-to-face in the office or printing report is time consuming. Microsoft is an example. In Microsoft, they manage and share information through database, instead of using papers. General companies are also using Webpage (group ware), instance Messenger, tele-video communication system, and whiteboard s/w, to communicate to each other. In addition, using internet based phones (VOIP) to communicate overseas is less costly. When we consider these IT trends we are already using in our life, the experiment should be reorganized into new communication methods. A common example is the University student union that has replaced the communication by mail service to emails, which is less costly and very effective.
Step 5: Conclusion
As projects are becoming more international, communication and cultural diversity are factors always hindering the project to be complete on time, high cost-cost and poor performance. However, a lot of researches have been done to see how these challenges can be managed on some solutions are given to deal with cultural diversity and communication. As per the result, it seems as if more has to be done as recommended by most researchers because what have been researched seems to be applicable to particular situation.
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